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Published Originally as Item 14, Set (Research information for teachers) Number Two 1993 and set in 9-1/2 point Palatino and displayed in two columns as six A4 pages.
Prepared for electronic distribution by the author in October 1996. The original graphics for the  display title are not available, but all other text, tables, and examples appear as published and Set's editorial style has been used. The text type here is Times New Roman, increased to 10-1/2 point to improve legibility on the screen.

Words and Images in print and on screen
Lindsay Rollo
Wellington

Computers have dramatically expanded the options for preparing and presenting all types of printed and projected teaching resources.
These resources are available to anyone, whether they have studied legibility or not. The results can be appalling and actually hinder learning. Here is some guidance from research. Traditional printing conventions developed over 450 years, and followed 1000 years of calligraphy before that. Traditional practice has a lot to commend it. So these notes, by and large, confirm and reinforce traditional practice.
All the recommendations are independent of both software and hardware. Many apply equally well to all text and graphic material‹on the blackboard, on white boards, in overhead projector transparencies, 35mm slides, and on computer screens and video tapes.
Looking flash or being easy to type are not considerations. If your software or printer cannot achieve some of the recommendations here, be guided by this principle: Make it easy for learners to grasp the content.
Prime Objective
Typography is the craft of rightly disposing printing materials in accordance with a specific purpose: of so arranging the letters, distributing the space and controlling the type as to aid to the maximum the reader's comprehension of the text.
So said Stanley Morison, designer of one of the most widely used, and imitated, typefaces, Times Roman.
Comprehension of the text is assisted by two elements:
(1) Readability, which concerns the choice and order of words ‹are the words and sentences understandable? This is the job or writers and editors.
(2) Legibility, which concerns the selection and arrangement of type and space. This used to be the business of the printer or typographer‹now it is the concern of anyone who has a computer. We are all typographers now, so remember this dictum:
Good typography is seamless‹it does the job so well no one is aware of it.
Page Design
The page is the basic unit of text presentation.
The combination of type, any illustrations, and space should present a cohesive combination that ensures optimal eye movement through the page, without distraction from unsightly spaces, poorly placed headings or illustrations, or unnecessary or over-emphatic typographical distractions.
Reading Gravity
The first principle in page layout is that in the Western world we start to read at the top left hand corner of the reading matter and work our way across each line, then down one line, sweeping from left to right and back again, until we reach the bottom right hand corner.
Thus the reader's eye falls naturally to the top left hand corner and reading gravity carries it across and down the page to the bottom right corner. Between these opposite corners there is an axis of orientation (see Figure 1).
Fig. 1: Arnold's `Gutenburg Diagram¹ charts basic eye movement from the Primary Optical Area (POA) to the Terminal Anchor (TA). Crosses indicate fallow corners and the arc of wavy lines shows ~backward¹ movement that reading eye resists' (after Wheildon).
Any typographical cueing or layout feature that causes the eye to move upwards, or to the left, through the page reduces both comprehension and speed of reading. Research by Wheildon confirms the importance of the concept of reading gravity, see Table 1.
Table 1
Effects of Reading Gravity
	Comprehension Levels
	Good	Fair	Poor
Reading gravity layout	%	%	%
Complying with principle	67	19	14
Disregarding principle	32	30	38
PAGE PROPORTIONS
Blank space is the most important aid to good page layout. The white space is not what is left over. It is part of the design. Text, illustrations, display type and headlines all need space in which to breathe and be effective. The space you allow between lines of type, between each headline and another, and between text and illustrations is important (The Open Polytechnic of NZ).
Begin by using generous margins all around your material ‹ use space to frame the message.
Traditional hard and soft covered book page sizes are close to 1·6 : 1 proportions. Usually, white space occupied about 50 percent of single- or double-page layouts. Ungenerous margins give a crowded impression, and may deter reluctant or unskilled readers.
The A4 page size presents particular problems. Older typewriters give each letter an equal space (hence the ~air¹ around l and i and the squashed look of m and w). The A4 proportions (1.4:1) are well suitable to typewriter typefaces. This is also true of the American business paper size of 180 x 215 mm (8.5 x 11 inches) which developed from the old quarto size. Tractor fed computer paper ‹ the stuff with the holes down the side‹is usually an American size; make sure you get the right one for your computer. These paper sizes are not optimal for the proportionally spaced typefaces available today where l and i are narrow, m and w much wider, and other letters somewhere between.
Using two columns on A4 pages overcomes most of these problems, and provides additional flexibility in the size and placement of illustrations and choice of type size. It improves economy, and the smaller blocks of type appears to increase the amount of white space and so contributes to user friendliness.
This article is printed on A4 pages, in two columns, each 88 mm wide.
Fig. 2: The text block of traditional book sizes in the example (left) occupies 51 percent of the page area. The A4 pages (right) occupy 55 percent in the single column and 54 percent in the double-column examples. All examples are the same relative scale.
PARAGRAPH FORMAT
M.A. Tinker, one of the best known researchers into legibility, reports that comprehension rates increase 7 to 8 percent by using indented first lines to each paragraph. Indents for proportionally spaced type faces should be 10 points for 10 point type, 12 points for 12 point type, and so on. Such a space is called an ~em¹ by printers, from the width of the letter m.
These indentations help the eye to recognise each new paragraph as the start of a new subject or that another component of the argument is about to be presented. It is not an accident that newspapers and book publishers indent the first line of paragraphs‹it helps the reader. Indenting should also be practised in typewritten presentation, even when using double line paragraph spacing.
Additional spacing between paragraphs is rarely necessary in text set in small type sizes in narrow columns. For text set in more ordinary sizes ‹ like the 9-1/2 point of this article, but with a wide measure reaching right across the page ‹ an extra bit of space between paragraphs will help legibility; about half the height of a line is plenty. Too much inter paragraph spacing destroys the visual cohesion of the page, as does excessive line spacing.
Selecting and Using Type Faces
Most proportionally spaced typefaces offered for use with computers are based of long established models. Some of these typefaces date back to the earliest days of printing (Bembo­- 1492; Garamond­1620; Baskerville­1750); others were adapted to meet particular requirements (Times from Plantin for The Times­1932, or the take account of contemporary computer technology (Stone for Scientific American­1987).
Check that the typeface and printer selected supports all the characters and/or symbols you need. Some typefaces do not support a full range of punctuation marks, and would not be an appropriate choice for teaching material. Sciences have their own special symbols and these may not be in the printer or software ~character set¹. Special character sets are available made up entirely of scientific and mathematical symbols.
Avoid using typefaces with fancy outlines or exaggerated curves for headings or titling, and especially for extended text. They will be hard to read. Typographers refer to ~text faces¹ and ~display faces¹ and it is a good distinction. Display faces are used in advertisements and fliers. Almost all text faces make good headings too, so display faces can be left on the dealers¹ shelves.
When selecting a type, middle-of-the-road values become a virtue, and novelty a nuisance.
SIZE SELECTION
Good software and good printers come with their typefaces in outline ‹ actually a mathematical formula which reduces or enlarges the type size requested. These are called outline, or scalable, faces. Sometimes they will be called scalable fonts. A font is a subset of a face: Times is a face, it comes in many sizes and weights; 10 point bold Times (that¹s it) is just one font of Times; 10 point italic Times (that¹s it) is another. When the sales leaflet says, ~Our wonder-printer has 50 resident fonts !¹ check carefully‹it probably means it has one size of 3 faces in various combinations of italic and bold, and perhaps a pretty useless display face or two. Getting a good typeface in scalable sizes, is 100 times more useful.
How do you select the appropriate size of text for your audience, wasting no space, and keeping it readable? The first rule is that small children (new readers) need large type. After that the decision gets more interesting. Some typefaces look more crowded that others, and some do indeed pack in more letters in each line. Italic type saves space, but it tiring to read in large chunks; capitals (upper case) use up a lot more space, but they are much less readable. So italics and capitals are best used for occasional emphasis only. Bold takes up more space than medium weight letters but is just as readable.
Figure 3: Examples all set in the same point size. 
Times: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Century Book: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Sans serif: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Typewriter: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxy
Note the differences both in the relative size of the characters, and the visual density of the examples on the page.
Figure 4: Samples all set in the same nominal type size. (12 pt).
Type A
To make the best use of this expanded resource font base you have to make informed typographical choices. Font choices must first match the audience.
Type B
To make the best use of this expanded resource font base you have to make informed typographical choices. Font choices must first match the audience.
Type C
To make the best use of this expanded resource font base you have to make informed typographical choices. Font choices must first match the audience.
Type D
To make the best use of this expanded resource font base you have to make informed typographical choices. Font choices must first match the audience.
Sample A is about 18 percent more economical that B or C, and requires less leading than any of the other samples. It would have to be set 1 point larger to have the same perceived size as
Samples B and C. It would then loose its setting advantage. Sample C shows that sans serif faces are not necessarily more economical than serif faces. Sample D, a standard typewriter face, provides contrast and demonstrates that typewriter faces need a wider measure to be read to advantage.
The main difference between different faces lies not in the shape of the letters themselves so much as the white spaces between and above and below. Therefore, typefaces with long ascenders (b, f, l, h) and long descenders (p, y, q, j) look open and light compared with typefaces with short ascenders and descenders. The contrast can be seen in the several examples that follow. If you have a choice of typefaces it is again best to choose the older less cramped faces for children. Edit and shorten the text before you reduce the type size below 9 point.

Figure 5: 
pxl	pxl	pxl
Note the differences in x-height, and the length of the ascenders and descenders, and the relative weights on the page, in these three examples, all nominally 36 point size.

Decide on the type size by the appearance on the page. With computers it is marvelously easy to try a few sizes and decide which is best, at virtually no expense. If you like a typeface (or are forced to use one) that has short ascenders and descenders, a large Œx' height, and a dark look on the page, you can make it more readable by adding white space between the lines. This is called leading, after the strips of lead hand-craft printers once used between lines of type.
Most printers can accommodate changes in line spacing (leading). But beware‹some word-processors automatically add 2 points of leading whenever proportionally spaced type is selected. This can lead to excessive spacing. Assess each typeface on its merits, and not by a formula. For example, many versions of Times need less leading than 2 points ‹1 point is plenty; but Century Schoolbook, another face often supplied, needs 2 points. The inter-letter spacing also need checking: Times is frequently set too tightly and needs a small increase (1.5% to 3%) to stop adjacent characters appearing to run into one another.
Finally, there are the differences in the relative or apparent density of the type as it appears on the page. This is caused by the varying thickness of portions of the strokes and serifs of each letter. Times is fairly dark, Century is much lighter. Denser or more robust typefaces generally need more leading than lighter faces. We are surrounded by books and almost every one has a different combination of size, width, weight and leading of type. And in libraries there are plenty of books on typography and graphic design with samples of typefaces that can help develop judgement about legibility and the beauty of print. Many children enjoy these too.
Items for students with limited English or limited reading skills should use simple clear fonts, and use slightly larger than average type sizes and err on the side of more leading. The pupil can then concentrate more on the context, and less on deciphering the characters.
An excellent exercise is to create a test sample of text, about 100 words, using a moderate line width, and get the computer to copy it several types on the same page. Then apply each of the available fonts, one to each sample. This creates a visual aid to making judgements about which size, face, and leading is most appropriate for your purpose, and which best combines clarity with economy. Figure 4 is a short example.
The aim is, always, to achieve clarity.

SERIF OR SANS SERIF ?
Times or Universe? For example. The researchers have found clear answers. Tinker has summarised the research; it shows (1) serif type (e.g. times or Century) is superior as measured by speed of reading. (2) Wheildon's research clearly demonstrates serif type is superior for comprehension. (3) Hvistendahl and Kahl's results record readers¹ preferences for serif type. This re-enforces 450 years¹ experience of printers and publishers.

Researchers believe serifs also help to channel the eye movements across the page, and so help the continuity of the reading process. Research clearly shows that serifs help to distinguish characters of similar appearance, such as g,q; h,k; o,e,c; i,t. Even in serif typefaces, some capital letters, such as B, G, and Q are often confused with R, C, and O. It is easier to misread ~tum¹ for ~turn¹ in a sans serif such as Universe than it is with a serif typeface. This type of error is more frequent in smaller type sizes, or when words are read from an oblique angle.
The argument that sans serif type is modern and uncluttered is irrelevant.
Modernity is not a typographical rationale in itself; fitness for purpose is paramount.
PROPORTIONALLY SPACED TYPEFACES
Virtually all computer printers, including dot-matrix printers, provide proportionally spaced typefaces. Words printed with these faces are read more quickly that typewriter-style mono- spaced typefaces, such as Courier, and without loss in comprehension. While there is still a place for mono-spaced faces, particularly in tabular work, use proportionally spaced typefaces if they are available. Fortunately, some laser printers have a mono-spaced serif font that matches one of the proportional fonts, providing the best of both worlds for tables.
When using proportional faces, abandon certain typewriting conventions, such as the double space after a full point (stop). The double space was necessary with mono-spaced type to give a clearer visual signal that the end of a sentence had been reached. These double word spaces become very noticeable; they interrupt the flow of the eye along the line; and if two or more appear close to each other in succeeding lines, they can give the appearance of a `hole' in the text.
OPTIMUM LINE LENGTH
`The line should contain between 1-1/2 and 2 alphabets, that is 39 to 52 characters' says one typographer. Another says the line ( in ems) should not exceed 2.5 times the type size (in point)‹lines of 10 point type should not exceed 2.5 x 10 =25 ems (105 mm). Both rules of thumb are generally supported by research.
Tinker reports that, for any given type size, line length can vary considerably without affecting legibility, as measured by reading speed. For example, 10 point type is equally legible in lines from 66 to 110 mm wide and 12 point type is equally legible from 66 to 140 mm.
Leading also has an influence. Adding 2 points of leading (less than a mm) of extra white space between lines of 10 point text increases the line length readability.
Avoid extremes of line length and type size. Very short measures with larger type sizes, and longer measures with smaller sizes, reduce reading speed.
RAGGED RIGHT OR JUSTIFIED?
Use unjustified text in material prepared specifically for pupils learning to read and for poor readers. Professor Marie Clay comments:
many lines are one sentence lines and many breaks are made at syntactic breaks (phrases) to help the reader with the grouping of the words. Strangely enough when I asked teachers at what point the books change to justified print I found that most teachers were not even aware of the shift, and they certainly did nothing to prepare children for it. The shift seem to be made by young readers without anybody noticing it very much.
Some researchers found no differences in reading speed between ragged right and justified text but Wheildon's research shows clear advantages in justified text for competent readers (Table 2).
Table 2: Effect of Justifying Text on Comprehension level
	Comprehension Level
	Good	Fair	Poor
Layout Setting	%	%	%
Justified	67	19	14
Ragged right	38	22	40
Ragged left	10	18	72
The traditional printing practice of justified type enhances visual cohesion of the page. Some commentators believes that the uniformly defined right hand margin is sub-consciously identified in the peripheral vision and alerts the reader to the impending transfer to the next line.
Good word-processors provide justified text immediately, without time or effort. With long texts the cost advantages in space saving by justifying is a bonus.
While hyphenation is almost always necessary in justified text, excessive hyphenation is a signal that an inappropriate type size or line length is being used.
EMPHASIS
Typewriter technology allowed few options for emphasis: capital letters and underlining. Underlining was a substitute for italic type. Computers allow a full range of typographical emphasis ‹variations in type size, italic and bold fonts of a typeface, using more than one typeface, a variety of symbols (bullets, diamonds, solid and open squares, etc.), together with spatial cueing represented by centred or cross headings, and side or shoulder headings, and various levels of indentation, and numbering.
RESEARCH RESULTS ARE QUITE CLEAR: TEXT, OR WORDS, SET OR WRITTEN ALL CAPITALS, ARE VERY SIGNIFICANTLY LESS LEGIBLE THAN TEXT SET LOWER CASE. AVOID FREQUENT OR EXTENDED USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS ALONE. USE THEM SPARINGLY, AND ONLY FOR BRIEF TITLES, AND NEVER IN LISTS, TABULATIONS, OR SOLID SENTENCES.
SMALL CAPITALS (x height) are another resource for the good typographer. Acronyms and the like can be set capitals and small capitals, or all small capitals, and provide the necessary typographical distinction without under emphasis (NZCER; CSIRO; ASCII; IBM; UNESCO).
There is no reason to use underlining in computer-generated text. Do not use it. Not in headings; not in text. Use italic fonts for foreign languages, including the binomial (Latin or Greek derivation) names of plants and animals. There will also be occasions when italics can be used to distinguish, as distinct from emphasise, words or phrases.
Some dot-matrix printers cannot manage italics but most can manage bold (perhaps called ¹overstrike¹). But beware‹many bold fonts provide too much emphasis, and excessive use of bold fonts induces a spotty appearance on the page, or gives the appearance of shouting at the reader. There is some evidence that headings that catch the eye distract the reader from the text, to the detriment of comprehension.
The careful selection of the type size for headings, combined with spatial cueing, all in one typeface, is most likely to provide effective, non-intrusive, typography.
Write for emphasis; display for clarity.
Laser printer publicity frequently emphasises the number of screen dot or grey scale options available. These are important for reproducing photographs and the wash effects in drawings. But they are frequently misused as panels behind a portion of text. While the shaded portion of the page stands out, the text printed in the shaded box is significantly less legible because the dots corrupt the outline of the characters and words, and the grey scale reduces contrast between the paper and the type.
Using lines above and below a special statement, or including it in a box, is acceptable. Resist the temptation to use heavy lines. The fact that there is a typographic cue to attract the eye is usually sufficient to signal to the reader that the passage identified has some special significance.
Tables
Display printed tables with the least number of lines possible. Some word- processors provide table creation features organised on a cell basis, like spreadsheets. They present the table on screen with lines around all the cells, and can be printed out in this format. However, removing lines allows the eye to run across or down the table without interruption, so small tables may not need any lines at all. When tables are a minor part of the total text, aim to make them as unobtrusive as possible; this way they will not interrupt the narrative or logic of the presentation.
If tables are long, and particularly if the data displayed has a regular sequence (e.g., conversion tables, time related sequences), mark off each five lines with a one-half or one third line space. This helps guide the eye across the page. Label all tables. They should also be numbered if there is any possibility of confusion, or if tables cannot be displayed adjacent to the relevant text.
If tables are numerous, group them on separate pages. In a few cases group them at the end of the text, particularly if the points exemplified in the tables have been stated in the text. Traditionally table captions appear above the table; captions for figures‹graphs, diagrams, and illustrations‹appear below the item, but this is not very important. Consistency is best‹all above or all below.
Paper and Contrast
Black ink on plain white paper is still the best basic approach. Reversed-out text (white on black) is much harder to read.
Photocopying has its legibility hazards. Xerography tends to weaken thin portions of letter strokes, and thicken broader stokes. Paper surface also has an effect. Many photocopy papers have a relatively rough surface, and this tends to break up the outline of characters and give a fuzzy appearance. Making a master copy for photocopying is a good idea‹a laser printer copy on matte art paper reduces these disadvantages. Using glossy paper does not help legibility‹the light reflected off the paper makes the message harder to read. Many laser printers have difficulty in handling glossy paper. If you need a fine surface to reproduce detail in illustrations, use matte art paper.
Re-cycled papers usually have less contrast than virgin paper because of the difficulty of removing all the ink used previously, and so need stronger typographical treatment, for example. Using typefaces with thicker strokes and big counters time, overhead and slide projectors are what most teachers and that summarise the subject. (the hole in the ~e¹,¹a¹, etc.).
Another trap is the use of textured and tinted papers. Some papers have a contrasting, coloured, randomly distributed, fleck or mottled pattern; or they may have varying degrees of surface embossed patterns. While these features have little effect on large size titling, they can almost destroy the integrity of standard sized text material. When using tinted paper or transparencies, select background hues that provide the strongest contrast with black ink, e.g., lemon or canary; ochre; light green, blue or pink.
Projected Teaching Materials
Because a combination of what is seen and heard is more effective than seeing or hearing alone, multimedia combinations are very useful in teaching. They are becoming cheaper and easier to create. Already some expensive computer equipment will project screen images, and colour printers are available (but expensive to buy or expensive to run.) Meantime, overhead and slide projectors are what most teachers and lecturers will have.
No matter what form of presentation is used, choosing an appropriate typeface is fundamental element in making projected images easier to read and to be comprehended quickly and accurately. For projected presentations, sans serif faces are easier to read than most other type faces. This is against the usual advice, the research is not clear, try different styles yourself.
Classroom Conditions
No viewer should be more than six times further from the screen than the height of the image on the projection screen. If the image on the screen is a metre from top to bottom, no child should be more than six metres from it.
Creating charts that are mostly words
Keep the text concise. Limit each chart to one idea and use strong verbs, short words and short sentences. In introducing new subject matter to a class, use no more than eight words per point, and use space rather than bullets to separate points‹ but be consistent first.
Creating Diagrams and Graph Charts
Omit all unnecessary details and lines. Round numbers up or down to match the level of detail displayed. Use short titles Try and limit any graph to four lines, two is best. Make lines very easily distinguishable from each other; coloured lines have an advantage when one or more lines cross others in the chart. Make the trend or data lines thicker that the axes, and minimize both the number and thickness of any grid lines.
Bar and Pie Charts
Take particular care with bar charts, both printed and projected. Many software packages can display them as horizontal, vertical, stacked, clustered, overlapped, and paired bars, or percentage elements, using a wide range of textures, patterns or colours. With so many resources to choose from, resist the temptation to use too many. Keep all charts simple.
Keep the textures or colours well differentiated within or between bars, and use the same texture/colour for the same data across all sets of bars in a related series.
Distinguish between positive and negative values with different colours.
Use darker or stronger colours or fill patterns closer to base lines, and graduate to lighter colours further from the baseline.
Use darker, stronger colours and fills on the left of clusters.
Keep the number of segments in a pie chart to six or fewer; place the most important segment in the upper quadrant or arrange the slices from the largest to the smallest in a clock- wise direction. Emphasise one, at the most two, particular slices by cutting them away from the pie and/or using a high- contrast colour.
Be careful when using pie charts to compare two situations. Be sure that the comparison is easily grasped visually. The eye has difficulty in comparing areas. It might be better to use a graph.
Labels should be kept short and placed within segments; but display percentage values next to each slice.
Colour Combinations
Colour in presentation can be a boon, and a hazard.
Overhead transparencies and paper presentations work best with dark text on light backgrounds. Black on white is still the best for these purposes.
For projected images, do not use too many colours. In creating a straightforward text chart, limit it to three colours: one for the background, one for the heading and any highlighting, and one for the text.
If you need more than five colours in a graph, it is certainly too complicated.
Use the same colours consistently throughout a presentation‹your students will find it easier to relate comparable data, and it creates a unified and professional appearance.
Text and background should be in contrasting colours.
Again in contrast to paper and OHPs, computer screen graphic work and 35mm slide presentations work best with light text on a dark background.
Use complementary colours and ensure that the colour scheme chosen is not harsh or tiring to look at. Do not use red/green combinations for highlighting data‹because of colour blindness, a significant proportion of the male population cannot differentiate between these colours.
Some colours have associated connotations, including amongst others‹red for danger or stop; blue for cold; yellow for caution and cheerfulness; and white for purity. These associations are entirely Western associations. Presentations to other cultural or to ethnic groups should be checked for their specific connotations or conventions.
Notes
Lindsay Rollo is a graphic designer and typographic consultant, 33 Burrows Avenue, Karori, Wellington 6005, New Zealand.
Acknowledgements
He acknowledge assistance from the staff of the Auckland Technical Institute, The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand, the Printing Industry Training Committee, and the Wellington College of Education, and librarians at the New Zealand Council for Educational Research, the National Library of New Zealand and the Wellington Public Library, and the editor of Set.
References and Reading List
Anon Introduction to Desktop Publishing The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand (Undated [1992]) [set of eight assignments]
Anon The Simple Art of Presentation, Lane Cove, NSW; Software Publishing Corporation (undated) [Based on research by the Wharton School of Business Studies]
Clay, Dame Marie (in personal communiction)
Hvistendahl, J K and Kahl, M R Roman v. Sans Serif Body Type; Readability and Reader Preference, American Newspaper Publishers Association: Washington 1975 (New Research Bulletin No. 2)
McCullough, R A, Pinelli, T E, Pilley, D D, and Stohrer, F F; A Review and Evaluation of the Langley Research Center's Scientific and Technical Information Program, National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1982 (NASA Technical Memorandum 83269
Payne, D E, Readability of Typewritten Material: Proportional Versus Standard Spacing, Journal of Typographical Research (1) 125­136
Wheildon, C, Communicating : Or Just making Pretty Shapes, Newspaper Advertising Bureau of Australia (1990) rev. ed.
[Now available as Wheildon, Colin (1995) Type and Layout: How typography and design can get your message across‹or get in the way, Berkeley, California: Strathmoor Press]
Wiggins, R H Effects of Three Variables on Speed of Reading Journal of Typographical Research (1) 5­18 Wright, Patricia Presenting Technical Information: A Survey of Research Findings Instructional Science 1977 (6) 93-134. Includes and extensive bibliography]
There are innumerable books on desktop publishing. Many are written to support particular software programs. These frequently concentrate on how to use the program, rather than the principles to guide a choice between options. Each title in the short list below gives some background to established publishing practice, frequently supported by references to research. All titles are available from libraries. Read them for the principles discussed. Do not ignore the portions dealing with specific equipment or programs; ask yourself the question ~Do I want or need to be able to do this function with my equipment or program?¹ and then set out to find the relevant section in your manual. With luck it might be there.
This is an outstanding summary of research on the subject, and the starting point for researchers to this day is
Tinker, Miles A. (1963) Legibility of print, Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Outstanding for its coverage of type selection, and easily understood by beginners, is
Brown, Alex (1989) In Print Text and Type in the Age of Desktop Publishing, New York: Watson-Guptill Publications.
Probably the best single general introduction to desktop publishing is
Simmonds, D and Reynolds, L (1989) Computer Presentation of Data in Science, London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Do not be put off by the title‹it includes information on OHP's, presenting tabular material, and a valuable reading list. Linda Reynolds is also the author of `Legibility Studies: their relevance to present-day documentation methods'. [Journal of Documentation 1979 35 (4) 307-340] This review paper summarises research results on legibility, including work carried out since Spencer's `The visible word' was published. It has an extensive bibliography.
A book covering a range of practical examples, such as press releases, overhead transparencies, advertisements, brochures, and printing in colour, based on the research recorded in Wheildon, above is
Webster, T and Larter, B (1989) Design and Layout in Computer Publishing Sydney: Webster & Associates.
A guide to the commonest stylistic, typographical and grammatical errors encountered in desktop publishing are
Williams, Robin (1990) The Mac is Not a Typewriter, Berkeley, California: Peach Pit Press.
or
Williams, Robin (1992) The PC is Not a Typewriter, Berkeley, California: Peach Pit Press.
Design students will find the long respected Visible Word very attractive and helpful. It ends with a section called ~Towards a new alphabet¹ which will intrigue those with a penchant for codes and secret alphabets as much as design conscious art students and English teachers.
Spencer, Herbert (1968) The Visible Word, Problems of Legibility, London: Lund Humphries.
© Copying Permitted
Copyright on this item is held by ACER and NZCER who grant to all people actively engaged in education the right to copy it in the interests of better teaching: just acknowledge the source.